AQA New GCSE Sciences (Biology)
The new AQA specification begins with a relevant section on "Knowledge, Skills and Understanding":
TiS: The societal aspects of science are very relevant in the study of the origins of life and its diversity. No-one can come to such topics without preconceptions and biases, and these radically alter the interpretation of the evidence.
For example, it is noticeable that several well known scientists who dogmatically advocate Darwinism are also prominent supporters of the British Humanist Association. Other scientists have contrasting religious affiliations. All are influenced by these aspects of their lives.
Students might also consider how a consensus of opinion on a controversial topic by high-status scientists may discourage disagreement from younger scientists.
TiS: We fully agree with the compilers of this GCSE specification that Section 11.7 (on Evolution and its alternatives) has Spiritual, Social and Cultural implications. It is for this reason that such care must be taken to teach this section in a fair manner.
The major spiritual implication of Darwinism is that it claims design in the natural world is merely apparent (not actually real). Evidence which would otherwise allow one to conclude there must be a God is thus explained away. Pupils must be permitted to rigously evaluate the evidence for this, and hear alternative explanations.
How Science Works
10.1 The thinking behind the doing
Science attempts to explain the world in which we live…Scientists try to explain phenomena and solve problems using evidence. The data to be used as evidence must be reliable and valid, as only then can appropriate conclusions be made.
A scientifically literate citizen should, amongst other things, be equipped to question, and engage in debate on, the evidence used in decision-making.The reliability of evidence refers to how much we trust the data. The validity of evidence depends on the reliability of the data as well as whether the research answers the question. If the data is not reliable the research cannot be valid.
To ensure reliability and validity in evidence, scientists consider a range of ideas which relate to:
• how we observe the world
• designing investigations so that patterns and relationships between variables may be identified
• making measurements by selecting and using instruments effectively
• presenting and representing data
• identifying patterns, relationships and making suitable conclusions.
These ideas inform decisions and are central to science education. They constitute the 'thinking behind the doing' that is a necessary complement to the subject content of biology, chemistry and physics.
The sections below introduce the key ideas relating to evidence that underpin scientific practice.
TiS: We welcome this approach to teaching science, and suggest that the subject of origins makes and excellent case study for discussing many of these ideas. Students might ask questions such as: What evidence is there for the common ancestry of life? What evidence is there for intelligent design?
10.2 Fundamental Ideas
Evidence must be approached with a critical eye. It is necessary to look closely at how measurements have been made and what links have been established. Scientific evidence provides a powerful means of forming opinions. These ideas pervade all of ‘How science works’.Candidates should know and understand
• It is necessary to distinguish between opinion based on valid and reliable evidence and opinion based on non-scientific ideas (prejudice, whim or hearsay)...• Evidence must be looked at carefully to make sue that it is:
- reliable, ie it can be reproduced by others
- valid, ie it is reliable and answers the original question
10.3 Observation as a stimulus to investigation
Observation is the link between the real world and scientific ideas. When we observe objects, organisms or events we do so using existing knowledge. Observations may suggest hypotheses and lead to predictions that can be tested.Candidates should know and understand
• Observing phenomena can lead to the start of an investigation, experiment or survey. Existing theories and models can be used creatively to suggest explanations for phenomena (hypotheses). Careful observation is necessary before deciding which are the most important variables. Hypotheses can then be used to make predictions that can be tested...
• Data from testing a prediction can support or refute the hypothesis or lead to a new hypothesis...
• If the theories and models we have available to us do not completely match our data or observations, then we need to check the validity of our observations or data, or amend the theories or models.
TiS: Pupils may wish to ask the question: what observable evidence supports the theory that life has evolved by an undirected process from non-life?
TiS: This is highly relevant to the subject of origins, where scientists are theorising about past events. Often, this relies on extrapolation from recent observations far into the distant past.
10.7 Using data to draw conclusions
The patterns and relationships observed in data represent the behaviour of the variables in an investigation. However, it is necessary to look at patterns and relationships between variables with the limitations of the data in mind in order to draw conclusions.Candidates should know and understand...
• Conclusions must be limited by the data available and not to go beyond them...
Evaluation
• In evaluating a whole investigation the reliability and validity of the data obtained must be considered. The reliability of an investigation can be increased by looking at data obtained from secondary sources, through using an alternative method as a check and by requiring that the results are reproducible by others.
TiS: This is highly relevant to the subject of origins, where scientists are theorising about past events. Often, this relies on extrapolation from recent observations far into the distant past.
10.8 Societal aspects of scientific evidence
A judgement or decision relating to social-scientific issues may not be based on evidence alone, as other societal factors may be relevant.Candidates should know and understand
• The credibility of the evidence is increased if a balanced account of the data is used rather than a selection from it which supports a particular pre-determined stance.
• Evidence must be scrutinised for any potential bias of the experimenter, such as funding sources or allegiances.
• Evidence can be accorded undue weight, or dismissed too lightly, simply because of its political significance. If the consequences of the evidence might provoke public or political disquiet, the evidence may be downplayed.
• The status of the experimenter may influence the weight placed on evidence; for instance academic or professional status, experience and authority. It is more likely that the advice of an eminent scientist will be sought to help provide a solution to a problem than a scientist with less experience.
• Scientific knowledge gained through investigations can be the basis for technological developments.
• Scientific and technological developments offer different opportunities for exploitation, to different groups of people.
• The uses of science and technology developments can raise ethical, social, economic and environmental issues.
• Decisions are made by individuals and by society on issues relating to science and technology.
TiS: The societal aspects of science are very relevant in the study of the origins of life and its diversity. No-one can come to such topics without preconceptions and biases, and these radically alter the interpretation of the evidence.
For example, it is noticeable that several well known scientists who dogmatically advocate Darwinism are also prominent supporters of the British Humanist Association. Other scientists have contrasting religious affiliations. All are influenced by these aspects of their lives.
Students might also consider how a consensus of opinion on a controversial topic by high-status scientists may discourage disagreement from younger scientists.
10.9 Limitations of scientific evidence
Science can help us in many ways but it cannot supply all the answers.
We are still finding out about things and developing our scientific knowledge. There are some questions that we cannot answer, maybe because we do not have enough reliable and valid evidence...
And there are some questions that science cannot answer at all. These tend to be questions where beliefs and opinions are important or where we cannot collect reliable and valid scientific evidence. For example, science may be able to answer questions that start ‘How can we ...’ such as ‘How can we clone babies?’ but questions starting ‘Should we ...’ such as ‘Should we clone babies?’ are for society to answer.(from pages 28-32)
Unit Biology 1b: Evolution and Environment
11.7 Why have some species of plants and animals died out?
How do new species of plants and animals develop?
Changes in the environment of plants and animals may cause them to die out.
Particular genes or accidental changes in the genes of plants or animals may give them characteristics which enable them to survive better. Over time this may result in entirely new species.
Candidates should use their skills, knowledge and understanding of how science works:
• to suggest reasons why scientists cannot be certain about how life began on Earth
• to interpret evidence relating to evolutionary theory
• to suggest reasons why Darwin’s theory of natural selection was only gradually accepted
• to identify the differences between Darwin’s theory of evolution and conflicting theories;
• to suggest reasons for the different theories.
Their skills, knowledge and understanding of how science works should be set in these substantive contexts:
• Fossils provide evidence of how much (or how little) different organisms have changed since life developed on Earth.
• The theory of evolution states that all species of living things have evolved from simple life-forms which first developed more than three billion years ago.
• Studying the similarities and differences between species helps us to understand evolutionary and ecological relationships.
• Extinction may be caused by:− changes to the environment
− new predators
− new diseases
− new competitors.
• Evolution occurs via natural selection:− individual organisms within a particular species may show a wide range of variation because of differences in their genes
− individuals with characteristics most suited to the environment are more likely to survive to breed successfully
− the genes which have enabled these individuals to survive are then passed on to the next generation.
• Where new forms of a gene result from mutation there may be more rapid change in a species.(pages 38-39)
TiS: We welcome this section of the syllabus, and believe that it gives considerable scope for origins to be taught in a fair and balanced manner. If pupils are taught accurately about the lack of certainty which scientists have about the origin of life, the evidence for evolution, and the nature of the fossil record, and up-to-date alternative theories, then they should be well educated on this topic.
For further details on the origin of life see our essay on The Miller-Urey Experiment. See also our essay on The Fossil Record.
For further details on the origin of life see our essay on The Miller-Urey Experiment. See also our essay on The Fossil Record.
15.1 Spiritual, Moral, Ethical, Social and Cultural Issues
The study of science can contribute to an understanding of spiritual, moral, ethical, social and cultural issues.The following are examples of opportunities to promote candidates’ development through the teaching of science.SpiritualThrough candidates sensing the natural, material and physical world they live in, reflecting on their part in it, exploring questions such as when life starts and where life comes from, and experiencing a sense of awe and wonder at the natural world. Sections 11.7, 11.8, 12.6 and 13.7 are relevant.Moral and ethicalThrough helping candidates see the need to draw conclusions using observation and evidence rather than preconception or prejudice, and through discussion of the implications of the uses of scientific knowledge, including the recognition that such uses can have both beneficial and harmful effects. Exploration of values and ethics relating to applications of science and technology is possible. Sections 10.7, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 11.6, 11.8, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 13.4, 13.5 and 13.6 are relevant.SocialThrough helping candidates recognise how the formation of opinion and the justification of decisions can be informed by experimental evidence, and drawing attention to how different interpretations of scientific evidence can be used in discussing social issues. Sections 10.7, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 11.6, 11.7, 11.8, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6, 13.4, 13.5 and 13.7 are relevant.CulturalThrough helping candidates recognise how scientific discoveries and ideas have affected the way people think, feel, create, behave and live, and drawing attention to how cultural differences can influence the extent to which scientific ideas are accepted, used and valued. Sections 10.1, 10.7, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 11.6, 11.7, 11.8, 12.3, 12.4, 12.6 and 13.4 are relevant.
TiS: We fully agree with the compilers of this GCSE specification that Section 11.7 (on Evolution and its alternatives) has Spiritual, Social and Cultural implications. It is for this reason that such care must be taken to teach this section in a fair manner.
The major spiritual implication of Darwinism is that it claims design in the natural world is merely apparent (not actually real). Evidence which would otherwise allow one to conclude there must be a God is thus explained away. Pupils must be permitted to rigously evaluate the evidence for this, and hear alternative explanations.
15.6 Avoidance of Bias
AQA has taken great care in the preparation of this specification and associated specimen papers to avoid bias of any kind.
(page 63)
Quote
Intelligent design theory could be discussed in schools, but only in the context of being one of a range of views on evolution that students might consider and evaluate against the evidence.
Lord Filkin 21.02.2005
Extras
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